In 1512, Sebastian Cabot, on the orders of King Henry VII, prepared a map of Guienne and Gascony for use by the English army. In the same year, King Ferdinand of Spain summoned him to ask for his advice on the usurpation of Newfoundland. Sebastian Cabot was accepted into the permanent service of Spain and he immediately prepared an expedition to Newfoundland. Due to Ferdinand's death, nothing came of the trip. Charles V kept Sebastian Cabot in his service and in 1518 he was appointed pilot-in-chief of Spain.
In the winter of 1520—1521, Sebastian Cabot again visited England, where Cardinal Wolsey asked him to lead the expedition prepared by Henry VIII to Newfoundland. But after being reproached by a Venetian that he had done nothing for his own country, Cabot refused, and on arriving in Spain entered into secret negotiations with the Venetian Council of Ten. However, nothing more came out of the negotiations. V. 1524 Sebastian's time was spent in the negotiations of the junta of Badajoz. The following year he was finally sent to lead a Spanish expedition that was to sail to the Moluccas, Tarsii, Ofir, Cipangu, and Katai along the route discovered by Magalhães. But Sebastian Cabot did stay at the La Plata river in search of the rumored land of gold, as we have said before, and returned to Spain empty-handed. For violating his instructions, he was sent into exile for four years in Oran, Airika, but he got out of there already in 1533 and regained his position as chief pilot. In the next decade we meet him again in the service of England; he received a sizable pension from the English government in 1549, even though Charles V tried to force it to hand Cabot back.
Sebastian Cabot was appointed inspector of the navy in England and was given the task of abolishing the privileges of German Hanseatic merchants in London. He was involved in founding the large society of "Merchant Adventurers" and was appointed its leader for the rest of his life. Three ships were sent in May 1553 to search for the Northeast Passage to the far east, but two ships were shipwrecked and only Chancellor reached Viena, where he established trade relations with Russia. The way found by Chancellor was then set to sail to Viena diligently. When ships were sent on their way in 1556, according to a contemporary story, "good old Mr. Cabot gave the most generous alms to the poor, asking them to pray for the good luck of the ship and the success of the voyage." And then he and his friends procured feasts, and they bore the best of all who were in their company. And out of sheer joy that he saw our discovery trip come true, he too went dancing in the happy company of the young people.» The very next year, Sebastian Cabot will be dead.
Other trips to North America.
The Cortereal brothers.
Although the Portuguese had acquired such a large industry in India, they jealously held on to all the advantages that the Pope's Aulis distribution could possibly offer. In Portugal, it was thought that perhaps there were similar countries in the northwest beyond the Atlantic Ocean, which were on the east side of the demarcation line and therefore belonged to Portugal's heritage, and ships were sent in that direction as well. Cabot's journey excited rather than frightened, because according to the Portuguese government, England had no right to usurp land there.
Gaspar Cortereal, a good friend of King Manuel, who grew up in the Azores, used to the sea and ships since childhood, was given command of the first expedition. In 1500 he sailed towards the north and northwest and came to the coast of Newfoundland, thinking it was the land of the Great Khan and explored it from the Labrador coast to the north perhaps all the way to the Hudson and Davis straits, making an accurate map especially of the coast of Newfoundland. The following year he returned to continue his discoveries and now explored the shores of both Maine and Nova Scotia as well as Laurentian Bay. The original inhabitants received a broken Italian sword and earrings supposedly made in Venice; these were supposed to have traveled there across the country and therefore proved that the beach really belonged to the Grand Khan. However, that didn't stop Gaspar Cortereal from robbing half a hundred of the Grand Khan's subjects as slaves and sending them on two ships to Portugal to pay for travel equipment. The Portuguese did not think that any sailor had visited the beach they found before, and Cabot's journey must therefore have been unknown to them. The slaves who were sent home were a rotten people, and according to one explanation, Labrador got its name because they were so suitable as workers. Nothing was heard of Gaspar himself; he disappeared with the third ship to you ignorant people. In 1502, Miquel Cortereal set out to find his lost brother. But he also lost on that road, although the two accompanying ships were happily able to return. King Manuel sent an expedition in 1503 to look for both of the missing, but it made it come back in vain. The eldest of the Cortereal brothers, Vasqueuas, then asked to find ships to continue, but the king would not let him go again, fearing that he would lose the last of the brothers.
The Portuguese named this entire coast from the Bay of Fundy to the Hudson Strait, but most of the names were later changed by British fishermen. Not a single one of John Cabot's contributions has been preserved on the map.
Fisheries of Newfoundland.
S Right away, the first sailors noticed the immense fishiness of Newfoundland's waters, especially the vast shallows. The cold polar current runs along the east coast of America towards the south, and along with this cold water, the infinite fish stocks of the Arctic Ocean swim to the shallows of Newfoundland, which stick far into the sea, stopping the icebergs that drive ashore, under the power of eternal bucket fogs, a horror for sailors, but a paradise for fishermen. Not many years passed after the voyages of Cabot and Cortereal, before brave fishermen with their small but seaworthy vessels discovered these roaches and eventually began to visit them, especially for cod fishing.
The first Petitioners were Portuguese and hence the first names of Newfoundland. »Terra Corterealis» and »Bacallaos» (cod land) are indeed Portuguese. But for many years they were not allowed to fish there alone, the Basques of Spain, who had been great whalers in the old days, and the Bretons, the hardened sailors of the Brittany peninsula, also found there. And very early on, it seems that the English also joined the group, abandoning the Icelandic fish trade, which until then had satisfied their need for carp fish. The Portuguese mainly fished in the actual shallows, the Bretons' main location was Nova Scotia and the Laurentian Bay. As early as 1525, there were about 70-80 Brittany ships in these waters, hundreds of Portuguese ones. The Portuguese tried to establish colonies on the coast of Newfoundland, but the climate was too cold for them; settlements could not develop larger than fishing stations. The Englishman Hakluyt, a well-known collector of travelogues, says that 400 fishing ships visited the waters of Newfoundland in 1578, of which a quarter were English. But the conditions had otherwise changed within half a century to such an extent that the ports were mostly in the possession of the English.
The findings of the fishing boat did not come to the attention of literary circles, but a few research trips were made around this time. In the following, we will tell you more about French tours, but before that we will briefly mention a couple of English companies. In 1527, King Henry VIII sent a naval officer named John Rut with two ships to explore the "lands of the Great One" and to penetrate further west than the previous sailors. After losing his second ship on the coast of Labrador, Rut sailed the other south along the coast to the New York area and then returned to his homeland. The second expedition was equipped by a keen geographer named Hore, who attracted thirty Londoners, mostly lawyers, to take part in the expedition. They set off in 1536 and made many fascinating observations, until the Newfoundland coast ran out of food supplies. The famine got such a hold that a sailor killed his comrade while they were digging roots together. When the incident became known, the captain gathered his men and gave them a speech, in which he, in moving words, urged them to avoid the calamity of making each other eat each other, and told them all to repent and pray for help. Nevertheless, the famine increased so much that it was finally decided to draw lots as to who would be killed. »But God in his mercy sent a French ship to the harbor that same night with plenty of provisions.» The starving English took possession of the ship through treachery, changed ships and left their own empty ship to the French. It didn't even occur to the French to start eating each other; on the contrary, they were on a fishing trip and there was plenty of game both in the forests and in the sea. After a few months, they also returned to their homeland in good shape and demanded damages from Henrik VIII on the spot, which was generously paid to them. Thus ended the lawyers' trip, the only one of its kind on this coast.
Giovanni di Verrazzano.
Although at the beginning of the sixteenth century dozens of ships sailed from Brittany every year to take a share of the fish wealth of the "Bacallaos", the French government was still slow to officially appear in the waters that its southern neighbors claimed as their property. But finally King Francis I thought that he had as good a right to Adam's inheritance as the kings of Spain and Portugal and equipped an expedition. The fact that even the first French expedition was led by an Italian is indicative of the Italians' great value as sailors and their knowledge of the world.
Giovanni di Verrazzano, who was from Florence, offered to show the French the way to China. Frans I equipped four ships for the expedition and Verrazzano set off from Diepe at the end of 1523. The time was poorly chosen; two ships were already shipwrecked on the coast of Brittany, the third was hijacked by the Spaniards, with whom France was at war, near Madeira, and Verrazzano had to leave Madeira with a single ship to cut across the ocean. He met the coast of North America at the steps of the 34th parallel, south of Cape Hatteras. After sailing some distance further south, he returned and searched the entire coast as far north as Newfoundland. From the palm belt, to which the southern part of the coast still belongs, he, trading in good harmony with the inhabitants, came to the coast of temperate deciduous forests, and finally to the conifer coast, which was on the north side of it. In order to accurately draw the shore, he sailed during the day and was at anchor at night. Verrazzano discovered the Hudson River Estuary and took a boat up this lovely, fjord-like river in the beginning, with enough water and shelter for even the largest ships. Descending still toward the northeast, he found Rhode-Island, and encountered the Hunting Indians, a large and comparatively fair-skinned people, with brass ornaments, but no gold at all. In Narraganset Bay, which Verrazzano explains, so that he knows it well from the description, he stayed longer doing business. He rightly guessed that this port was on par with Rome, but the atmosphere was much colder. Verrazzano was probably the first to notice the coldness of the North American atmosphere compared to the corresponding latitudes of Europe. Farther north, where the country became rougher and the inhabitants more hostile, he penetrated some way into the country with an armed band. The mountainous shores with their fjords, in his opinion, resembled the shores of Dalmatia. It was not until the coast of Newfoundland that he broke off his expedition, as provisions began to run out, and returned to Dieppe, from where he sent the king an extensive account of his journey. This is the oldest extant account of the East Coast of North America. Verrazzano was a cultured man, knew the classics, made random observations and wrote his observations in an attractive form. where the country became more rugged and the inhabitants more hostile, he penetrated some way into the country with an armed band. The mountainous shores with their fjords, in his opinion, resembled the shores of Dalmatia. It was not until the coast of Newfoundland that he broke off his expedition, as provisions began to run out, and returned to Dieppe, from where he sent the king an extensive account of his journey. This is the oldest extant account of the East Coast of North America. Verrazzano was a cultured man, knew the classics, made random observations and wrote his observations in an attractive form. where the country became more rugged and the inhabitants more hostile, he penetrated some way into the country with an armed band. The mountainous shores with their fjords, in his opinion, resembled the shores of Dalmatia. It was not until the coast of Newfoundland that he broke off his expedition, as provisions began to run out, and returned to Dieppe, from where he sent the king an extensive account of his journey. This is the oldest extant account of the East Coast of North America. Verrazzano was a cultured man, knew the classics, made random observations and wrote his observations in an attractive form. from which he sent the king a long account of his journey. This is the oldest extant account of the East Coast of North America. Verrazzano was a cultured man, knew the classics, made random observations and wrote his observations in an attractive form. from which he sent the king a long account of his journey. This is the oldest extant account of the East Coast of North America. Verrazzano was a cultured man, knew the classics, made random observations and wrote his observations in an attractive form.
However, France had so many wars at that time that King Frans I did not take advantage of the results of the trip.
Esteban Gomez.
Spain, in turn, before long became restless, that there might have been fishing and usurping of lands in North-East America, colonies were founded in the territories that the Pope had given it. Ferdinand and his successors intended many times to send an expedition to investigate the matter, but because of the West Indian trouble, the implementation of the intention was postponed from year to year. But when France also began to spread its entrepreneurship there, Spain couldn't bear to stay idle any longer.
A year later than Verrazzano, the Portuguese Esteban Gomez of the East Coast of North America, the same pilot who entered the service of Spain, who abandoned Magalhães and »S. Antoniolla» returned from the strait back to Spain. He drew a map of the said coast, which was then copied by Diego Ribeiro and other general map makers. Gomez, like everyone else, was looking for a strait into the Tyvene Sea. He returned to Spain in November 1525, accompanied by a group of captured Indians to defray the expenses of the journey.
Jacques Cartier's trips to Canada.
The entire west coast of North America had been explored and surveyed in its parts when Jacques Cartier in 1534 made his first trip to the bay and river of Laurent. This gallant Britannian sailor was the first to penetrate the interior of the great continent at these angles. The significance of his travels was greater than usual, because through them Canada became annexed to France for many times and received a permanent French settlement.
Cartier was born in St. Malo in Brittany in 1491 and was therefore 43 years old when he left for his first trip. He seems to have visited Brazil when he was younger, whose beaches the French coveted and even tried to usurp. The French, and especially the Breton ships, had already been accustomed to sail annually into the waters of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, so that the route and the manner of sailing it were well known; However, Laurentian Bay was still at least partially unknown. Cartier received two ships from the French government, with which he was to investigate whether there was not a strait to the Tyvene sea in the region; the ships were only sixty tons, the number of men was 61.
Funk Island.
The trip across the Atlantic was quite quick; after twenty days the east coast of Newfoundland was reached, after which we sailed northward to the Strait of Belle Isle, between Newfoundland and Labrador. A lot of ice was encountered, because summer had hardly started yet. Cartier went to the island of Funk, which was only one league (4 kilometers) in circumference, but so incredibly full of sea birds, "that it would not have been considered possible if I had not seen it with my own eyes." Cartier was very surprised by this bird island and wrote a long report about it. In addition to snacks, he allowed his people to gather poultry at the barrel trade. Although the island was 14 leagues from land, polar bears still swam there to devour: the French saw one jump into the water when they arrived. »It was as big as a cow and white as a swan.» They did not kill it, but met it next day half-way to Newfoundland, and it swam almost as fast as they sailed. After being chased by boats, the bear was caught and killed. In their opinion, the meat was as tasty as that of a two-year-old heifer.
Labrador coast.
On May 27, Cartier arrived at Belle-Isle strait, which may be the same as Thorfinn Karlsefn's »Straumfjord». Sailed into the strait and followed the southern coast of Labrador. But it was so rugged that Cartier, following someone on his way west, abandoned it. »If the quality of the land was as good as the ports, it would be a great opportunity. But it can't even be called new land, but stone. into an ugly rock, a place suitable for wild beasts, for in all this northern country I did not see a handcart worth of good soil, although I digressed into the country in many places. And on »White Sand Island« there is nothing but moss and low thorn bushes scattered here and there, also withered and dry. Truly, I think this is the land that God gave Cain as an inheritance.»
Laurentian Bay.
Cartier therefore sailed across the strait and began following the west coast of Newfoundland southwards. A storm then drove him into the middle of the bay, where he found several larger and smaller islands. Among them, he especially liked the small island of Brio. It was surrounded by a sandy beach, and the island was full of beautiful trees, meadows, and fields, where grew wild grain, and such beautiful and strong flowering peas as anywhere else in Brittany; and they looked as if they had been sown. The description is reminiscent of the Wine Country of the Icelandic saga, although Cartier must not have heard of the expeditions of the Ostrobothnians. There was an abundance of gooseberries, strawberries and Provence roses, parsley and other fragrant plants. The island of Brio doesn't look like such a paradise nowadays, but Cartier, who came all the way from Labrador, was attracted by the contrast. Around the island "were wild animals, the size of a large bull, and they had two tusks in their mouths like elephants." At that time, walruses were still roaming in Laurentian Lahti, and Cartier now seems to have seen them for the first time. In the following times, they were wiped out from the bay to extinction, but as late as 1775, many fences were seen on the islands of Magdalena and Anticosti. Cartier's men found one lying on the beach, but it got away before they caught it.
Sailing towards the south, they then reached the northern shore of Prince Edward Island, whose fertile and lovely nature attracted Cartier, although he could not anchor there due to the lack of harbors. The trees were amazingly beautiful and fragrant, cedars, pines, yews, elms, ashes, willows and others, unknown. Where there was no forest, there the quality of the soil was good and it grew abundantly with red and white gooseberries, peas, strawberries, raspberries, and wild grain that looked like rye and seemed to be sown. The atmosphere was pleasant and warm. There were pigeons and hen birds and many other birds. The shore of New Brunswick was followed northward and a strait was sought in Chaleur Bay, which extends deep into the land, but the bay ended and the disappointment was great. We also met country people there. At Cape Gaspé, which is south of the estuary bay of the Laurentian River, more Indians were found, who had arrived there from the regions of Quebec to catch mackerel. They were of the Huron-Iroquois race, and both in language and form were unlike any they had seen before. They came openly and freely on board, men, women, children, and sang and danced, to show their joy at the coming of the French. But they demanded that Cartier remove the cross he had erected in Gaspé Bay, because the land was theirs. Cartier kidnapped the two sons of a chief to take them to France to learn the language; at first there was a war about it, but in the end Taignoagny and Domagaya willingly went along, gave their comrades their old clothes and dressed in French costume. met more Indians who had arrived there from the regions of Quebec to catch mackerel. They were of the Huron-Iroquois race, and both in language and form were unlike any they had seen before. They came openly and freely on board, men, women, children, and sang and danced, to show their joy at the coming of the French. But they demanded that Cartier remove the cross he had erected in Gaspé Bay, because the land was theirs. Cartier kidnapped the two sons of a chief to take them to France to learn the language; at first there was a war about it, but in the end Taignoagny and Domagaya willingly went along, gave their comrades their old clothes and dressed in French costume. met more Indians who had arrived there from the regions of Quebec to catch mackerel. They were of the Huron-Iroquois race, and both in language and form were unlike any they had seen before. They came openly and freely on board, men, women, children, and sang and danced, to show their joy at the coming of the French. But they demanded that Cartier remove the cross he had erected in Gaspé Bay, because the land was theirs. Cartier kidnapped the two sons of a chief to take them to France to learn the language; at first there was a war about it, but in the end Taignoagny and Domagaya willingly went along, gave their comrades their old clothes and dressed in French costume. They were of the Huron-Iroquois race, and both in language and form were unlike any they had seen before. They came openly and freely on board, men, women, children, and sang and danced, to show their joy at the coming of the French. But they demanded that Cartier remove the cross he had erected in Gaspé Bay, because the land was theirs. Cartier kidnapped the two sons of a chief to take them to France to learn the language; at first there was a war about it, but in the end Taignoagny and Domagaya willingly went along, gave their comrades their old clothes and dressed in French costume. They were of the Huron-Iroquois race, and both in language and form were unlike any they had seen before. They came openly and freely on board, men, women, children, and sang and danced, to show their joy at the coming of the French. But they demanded that Cartier remove the cross he had erected in Gaspé Bay, because the land was theirs. Cartier kidnapped the two sons of a chief to take them to France to learn the language; at first there was a war about it, but in the end Taignoagny and Domagaya willingly went along, gave their comrades their old clothes and dressed in French costume. But they demanded that Cartier remove the cross he had erected in Gaspé Bay, because the land was theirs. Cartier kidnapped the two sons of a chief to take them to France to learn the language; at first there was a war about it, but in the end Taignoagny and Domagaya willingly went along, gave their comrades their old clothes and dressed in French costume. But they demanded that Cartier remove the cross he had erected in Gaspé Bay, because the land was theirs. Cartier kidnapped the two sons of a chief to take them to France to learn the language; at first there was a war about it, but in the end Taignoagny and Domagaya willingly went along, gave their comrades their old clothes and dressed in French costume.
Cartier, in sailing forward, did not observe to turn into the river Laurent, because he, perhaps from a mirage, thought there was near the bottom of the gulf there, but he landed on the island of Anticosti, and almost sailed round it, seeing from the north end of the island westward a wide strait as far as the eye could see. He decided that at last it was the strait he sought, but sailed no further, returning to the ocean through the Strait of Belle Isle, as the expedition was not equipped to spend the winter. Cabot Strait, to the south of Newfoundland, and many miles wider than the northern strait, was unknown to Cartier, though doubtless many other sailors had seen it. Having thus explored all the shores of the Gulf of Laurent, Cartier, after a stormy voyage, returned with his little ships, arriving at St. Malo on the 5th of September.
Another outing.
By more haste he began to equip himself for a new expedition; already in October 30 d. he had the authority of the admiral of France for that purpose. Cartier had to equip three ships for fifteen months and set sail the following spring. An account of this journey was printed in 1545; it is one of the rarest books in the world, as only one copy is kept in the British Museum. On May 16, 1535, Cartier and all his people received the sacrament in St. Malo Cathedral, after which the bishop blessed them for their journey. The largest of Cartier's ships was 120 tons, the smallest only 40 tons, but equally small ships are still used to cross the Atlantic Ocean today, just to mention Amundsen's »Gjöa».
May On the 19th the expedition set out, but Cartier did not have as good a fortune in the Atlantic as on the first voyage; he had five weeks of the worst weather, headwinds, fogs, and heavy storms, so that the ships drifted apart, and did not see each other, until they had come to the appointed place of rendezvous, the bay of Blanc Sablon, which is in the strait of Belle Isle on the coast of Labrador. Along the southern coast of Labrador we sailed westward, keeping a close eye all the time to see if a strait would open at any point. After arriving at Anticost, the two Indians who returned with the expedition from France began to know the shore. Cartier sailed across the estuary bay of the Laurentian River to the Gaspé coast. At this interval whales were seen in such immense numbers that Cartier thought it was incomprehensible; whales are too as well as walruses, since extinct. Both Indians told of the great river Hochelaga, which fell into the bay, and said it narrowed all the way to Canada; By Canada, which name was heard for the first time, they meant the regions of Quebec. This information was a great disappointment to Cartier, who was looking for a strait. However, he still explored the northern shore as closely as possible, hoping to finally find the strait on that side, but all searches were in vain. At the mouth of the Moisie river he saw strange fish that had the shape of a horse, and both Indians said that they went to land at night, but lived in the sea during the day, what kind of animals these strange creatures were, it has never been ascertained. and said it narrowed all the way to Canada; By Canada, which name was heard for the first time, they meant the regions of Quebec. This information was a great disappointment to Cartier, who was looking for a strait. However, he still explored the northern shore as closely as possible, hoping to finally find the strait on that side, but all searches were in vain. At the mouth of the Moisie river he saw strange fish that had the shape of a horse, and both Indians said that they went to land at night, but lived in the sea during the day, what kind of animals these strange creatures were, it has never been ascertained. and said it narrowed all the way to Canada; By Canada, which name was heard for the first time, they meant the regions of Quebec. This information was a great disappointment to Cartier, who was looking for a strait. However, he still explored the northern shore as closely as possible, hoping to finally find the strait on that side, but all searches were in vain. At the mouth of the Moisie river he saw strange fish that had the shape of a horse, and both Indians said that they went to land at night, but lived in the sea during the day, what kind of animals these strange creatures were, it has never been ascertained. hoping to finally find the strait on that side, but all searching was in vain. At the mouth of the Moisie river he saw strange fish that had the shape of a horse, and both Indians said that they went to land at night, but lived in the sea during the day, what kind of animals these strange creatures were, it has never been ascertained. hoping to finally find the strait on that side, but all searching was in vain. At the mouth of the Moisie river he saw strange fish that had the shape of a horse, and both Indians said that they went to land at night, but lived in the sea during the day, what kind of animals these strange creatures were, it has never been ascertained.
in the Laurentian River.
The whole summer was spent in these searches; on the first day of September, Cartier and his ships decided to go down to the river delta and go up to Canada, the homes of both of his Indians. He came to the Saguenay River, the lower part of which for long distances is a rugged fjord, and met Indians fishing at its mouth. They had come from the Saguenay country, which both interpreters said was on that side, north of the Laurent, or Hochelaga river. This designation, however, seems to have been a wedding card, because higher up it apparently meant the regions of the great lakes. At the mouth of the Saguenay, you could see endless flocks of very strange animals, white whales, which thrived only on the border between salty and non-salty water. This whale was a beluga ( Delphinapterus leucas ), whose most popular resting places are still the estuary of the Laurentian River.
The Quebec region was the real home of Taignoagny and Domagaya, where their friends and relatives were. On the island where the ships anchored, there were Indians fishing; they fled, but when the two Indians who had been in France called them back and announced their names, a great crowd gathered, men, women, and children, and they danced and made merry. Nutrients were brought and gifts were given. The next day came Donnaconna, "Lord of Canada," coming down the river in twelve canoes, with a great many people with him. He came aboard the captain's ship, and Taignoagny and Domagaya told him of the miracles they had seen in France, and of the kind treatment they had received. The story made the best impression on the chief.
Cartier was exceedingly fond of the country; Quebec's landscapes are incomparable, especially in autumn. The French traveled to the nearby regions and Donnaconna himself showed them his country. Cartier was tired of his excessive talkativeness, but all who came in contact with the Hurons in later times had to learn patiently to listen to them. The location of the winter station was chosen and the equipment was started without delay. On his smallest ship, Cartier decided to visit Hochelaga in the fall, which was in the area of present-day Montreal, but Domagaya and Taignoagny did not agree to go as guides, but tried to prevent Cartier from leaving and at the same time secretly incited their countrymen against the French. Donnaconna forbade any of his men to go with the French. last resort, which was used to frighten Cartier from going to Hochelaga, was an otherwise curious play. A large number of Indians gathered in the woods near the ship, and at sunset a canoe suddenly came down the river, with three people in it; these were dressed in dog skins, their faces blackened, with long horns on their heads. Paddling swiftly downstream, without looking at the French, they passed them and then turned to shore. The middle one of the devils made a speech, and on the spot, when the canoe touched the shore, all three fell at length as if dead. The Indians carried them all into the forest and soon the whole region echoed with their complaints. At length Taignoagny and Domagaya came to them with many gestures and shouts to announce that their God Cudragny had sent word from Hochelaga that there was so much ice and snow there, that anyone who would go thither would be killed Cartier made a scornful reply to this sneer, the Indians ran out of the woods shouting and leaping, and both interpreters then announced that Donnaconna would not let Cartier go unless he left hostages at Stadacona, or Canada, till he returned. But in spite of all these intrigues, Cartier set out, taking with him the smallest ship, two boats, and fifty sailors, and the gentlemen who volunteered for the expedition. The same number of people remained to guard both larger ships. unless he left hostages in Stadacona, or Canada, until he returned. But in spite of all these intrigues, Cartier set out, taking with him the smallest ship, two boats, and fifty sailors, and the gentlemen who volunteered for the expedition. The same number of people remained to guard both larger ships. unless he left hostages in Stadacona, or Canada, until he returned. But in spite of all these intrigues, Cartier set out, taking with him the smallest ship, two boats, and fifty sailors, and the gentlemen who volunteered for the expedition. The same number of people remained to guard both larger ships.
The land pleased Cartier excellently, the fertile expanses. wonderful forests with oaks and elms. with ashes. with chestnuts, cedar and hawthorn. In Cartier's opinion, there was nowhere better. He was especially surprised by the lushness of the vines. They almost looked planted to him. Although the grapes were not as big and sweet as in France, the reason for that was of course the lack of care. There were huts on the banks of the river and fishermen in them, and the Indians came to Pelvoto to greet the strangers and bring them fish. We left the ship in the Peters lake, which is the wider part of the river, and continued the journey by boat.
Hochelaga.
It was the 2nd of October. when Cartier and his boats arrived at Hochelagaau. More than a thousand people came down to the iron, shouting to welcome the guests, men, women and children in different groups. The French boats were loaded with fish and bread made from cornmeal. Cartier gave them small gifts. When the French at dusk went to their boats for dinner and to sleep, the Indians made fires and frolicked all night on the beach. Early the next morning, Cartier and his entourage dressed in their best clothes and prepared to visit the city. There were gentlemen and eight third sailors in the group. With three Indians as guides, well arrayed, and in good order, the party of marchers entered the town from the beach by the much traveled road. After walking five or six kilometers they came to a great fire, where a certain chief with many men bade them rest; Among the Iroquois of Ontario, a similar way of welcoming guests is still prevalent. Then followed the customary long speeches and gift-giving. After a couple more kilometers, the Indians' grain raids began and in the middle of them, at the foot of the mountain, was Hochelaga. It was a round, three-fold log rigging around it. The logs of the central log fence stood upright, the logs of the inner and outer fence leaning against it. This equipment was about two spear measures high, the logs firmly tied together. On the inside, somehow high above the ground, a bridge passed around the entire equipment, with a reserve of stones with which to push back the attackers. There was only one gate in the settlement: inside it were about fifty houses around an open square, with which fires were kept. The huts were fifty paces long, twelve wide or even wider. They were covered with bark, and there was a storage shed in the attic. Many families lived in the same house; they cooked their food in the same stove, which was in the middle of the hut, but each family had its own bedroom. Cartier saw corn for the first time. Here he also got acquainted with the Indians' money, »wampums» [wampums were belts made of seashells], and acquired information on how to obtain it.
In the city, the French received the warmest reception. Men, women and children crowded around them, everyone wanted to touch them with their hands, and the strangers, who were considered supernatural beings, had to touch the children who were carried to them. Then carpets were spread on the ground, and when Cartier and his men had sat down, the sick, the crippled, and the blind were brought in for their healing. There was also the commander-in-chief, or aguhanna, who by signs asked Cartier to caress his withered limbs. Cartier, moved by this confidence, read aloud "In principio" (In the beginning was the word, and that word was with God, and God was that word), the first chapter of the Gospel of John, made the sign of the cross over each one and prayed to God to give them the knowledge of faith and grace, to give them Christianity and baptism. Then he took his prayer-book, and casually read the history of the Saviour's agony, word for word, pointing to heaven and making other devotional movements, and all the while the Indians listened and watched with the deepest devotion. This is vividly reminiscent of the reception Columbus and his men received in Haiti and Cuba. but only the beginning was the same. The Spaniards soon began to treat their new acquaintances with animal-like cruelty. The French, on the other hand, until the end, treated the Indians of Canada in a manner deserving of praise, much better than the Dutch and the English. who occupied the more advanced countries of the same coast. and the Indians all the time listened and watched with the deepest devotion. This is vividly reminiscent of the reception Columbus and his men received in Haiti and Cuba. but only the beginning was the same. The Spaniards soon began to treat their new acquaintances with animal-like cruelty. The French, on the other hand, until the end, treated the Indians of Canada in a manner deserving of praise, much better than the Dutch and the English. who occupied the more advanced countries of the same coast. and the Indians all the time listened and watched with the deepest devotion. This is vividly reminiscent of the reception Columbus and his men received in Haiti and Cuba. but only the beginning was the same. The Spaniards soon began to treat their new acquaintances with animal-like cruelty. The French, on the other hand, until the end, treated the Indians of Canada in a manner deserving of praise, much better than the Dutch and the English. who occupied the more advanced countries of the same coast. The French, on the other hand, until the end, treated the Indians of Canada in a manner deserving of praise, much better than the Dutch and the English. who occupied the more advanced countries of the same coast. The French, on the other hand, until the end, treated the Indians of Canada in a manner deserving of praise, much better than the Dutch and the English. who occupied the more advanced countries of the same coast.
Cartier then ascended a mountain in the vicinity of Hochelaga, and fell in love with the view that was from it on every side: To the west was the river Ottawa with its lakes, to the south-west the river Laurent itself, wide and mighty; closer was a rapid, the sound of which on a quiet summer evening could be heard on the mountain. From the north, the Laurentian Ridge bordered the fertile valley, from the south, the Adirondacks of New York State and the Green Mountains of Vermont appeared, seeming to be much closer to reality. Below him he saw an Indian town, and farther down the river his boat. Enamored with the view, he named the mountain Mont Royal. It still has the same name today, and the place of the Indian village is now the handsome metropolis of Montreal, which is rapidly growing up around the mountain. That river which came from the west, the Hochelagas said came from the land of Saguenay, by which they probably meant the Great Lakes region. They showed the copper they got there, from which weapons and other articles were made; iron was not known anywhere in America before the arrival of the Europeans. At nightfall the French returned to their boats: the Indians carried •on their backs those who looked tired. With longing, they parted from their new friends and followed the boats along the shore until dark.
Winter in Quebec.
After returning to his ship, Cartier noticed that the people who remained in them had meanwhile worked hard and built a ship near the castle from solid logs, brought cannons to the castle and equipped it so strong that it would have been impossible for the Indians to take it by storm. Cartier visited Donnaconna and found that the village had plenty of food for the winter. The chief showed him five scalps strung on a tree; they had been taken from a tribe living in the south, with whom the people of Stadacona were at war. Cartier first saw tobacco being smoked; he says that the Indians filled themselves with smoke until it came out of their mouths and nostrils like the chimney of a room. Taignoagny and Domagaya again tried to incite their countrymen against the French, but some neighboring chiefs warned them. Cartier heard a rumor that far in the west there was a saltless lake, the end of which no one had ever seen. And towards the south ran a river, along which in a month we came to a similar land, where there was no ice or snow, but an abundance of oranges, apples, nuts, almonds and other fruits in any quantity. But the people who lived there were always at war. Cartier decided from their information and signs that that land might be near Florida.
Cartier fortified his castle, as the unreliability of the Indians seemed to increase, and then equipped himself for the winter. Even though Canada's winter is so harsh, the French do not seem to have been badly affected by the cold. Worse was the side of diseases. In December the Indians began to suffer from some disease, on account of which Cartier separated his people from all communication with them. But the disease, which was scurvy, thus caused by food, spread to the ships and caused terrible destruction. It knocked one man after another into sickbeds, so that in the end only ten of the entire crew were healthy. The dead were buried in the snow when graves could not be dug in the frozen ground. The disease swept the field until only three men out of the entire crew were healthy. Cartier himself remained healthy and tried in every way to hide the bad condition of his people from the Indians. They were made to believe that urgent work was being delivered on the ships and in the castle. The Indians could have easily destroyed the whole expedition now, but Cartier luckily managed to keep the poor condition of his troops from them.
Donnaconna and his men had gone on a winter hunt, but Domagaya had stayed behind; Cartier met him one day in perfect health, although ten days before he had been ill in the worst condition. Domagaya said that he was healed from the ameda tree. Cartier said his servant was sick, and Domagaya then had two women bring the needles of that tree and show them how they and the bark were made into juice, which was drunk and used to incubate diseased parts of the body. A couple of French people tasted this strange herb with suspicion at first, but its effects felt good almost on the spot, and others were in such a hurry to get the same juice that a tree the size of a large oak tree had been used to make it. The effect was marvelous; after six days every man was well again. They would never have seen France again, writes Cartier, "unless God in his infinite goodness and mercy had taken pity on them and given them knowledge of a cure for all diseases, the best that had ever been seen or known on earth." But the fifth man had already died of the disease. The miracle tree that saved the others was the Canadian balsam fir (Abies balsamea ).
Spring finally came and Donnaconna and his men returned from the forest, many other Indians with him. Old suspicions whined. Donnaconna, who was already an old man, had told Cartier many stories about the wonderful Saguenay country, far to the west. There were infinite amounts of gold, silver, rubies and other riches. He had also, according to his own words, been to a country where people did not eat at all, and to a similar country where people had only one leg. Cartier concluded in his mind that the King of France would probably be delighted if he heard from the "Lord of Canada" about such wonderful countries, and would let him go on another journey. After donating the smallest of his ships to a nearby village, because there were no longer enough people for everyone, Cartier prepared for the journey home. Then, just as he was about to set out, allowed Donnaconna and a number of other Indians to be besieged and taken to ships. There was a great sadness in the village and all night long the Indians complained on the beach. The next day Donnaconna was allowed to address his countrymen and announce that the French had promised to treat him well and bring him back to his people on the next voyage. This somewhat calmed the Indians, and Cartier allowed the foremost men to go aboard the ships to greet the chief, until the anchors were raised and they set sail. The French, who had always been afraid of betrayal, were therefore the only ones who actually betrayed. In Cartier's defence, let it be said that his intention was to bring back the robbed, after they had paid a return visit to France, seen the country, and learned the French language and the rudiments of Christianity. Cartier did not rob slaves. The departure took place in May. 6 p., but after traveling a short distance, Cartier had to wait ten days for a favorable wind. Until the last moment, the people of Donnaconna went to the ships to greet their chief and bring gifts. Among the presents was a large brass knife, which was from the Saguenay country; it had doubtless come all the way from Upper Lake, which was the chief place of the copper industry of the Indians.
On the way home, we sailed through the Cabot Strait, between Cape Breton and Newfoundland. French fishing vessels were encountered on the south coast of Newfoundland. St. Malo, France was reached on July 6.
Cartier's third outing.
In France, things were again in a bad position when Cartier returned from his second trip in the summer of 1536. Charles V was preparing an invasion of southern France, and Frans I had no time to turn his ear to Donnaconna's tales of the one-legged and other wonders of the Saguenay. No new expedition was sent, and Jacques Cartier could not keep his word that the robbed Indians would be brought back the very next year. They all died, having converted to Christianity before then. Before his death, however, Donnaconna made it a point to be presented to the king with his compatriots. It wasn't until 1540 that King Frans had to think about Canada again, and Cartier received credentials for a new expedition. He was to penetrate as far as the country of Saguenay, for my commission appointed by the king was convinced that that country was already Asia; in addition, he had to found a colony. But that same winter, Cartier's favorite, Admiral Chabot, died, and the brave sailor lost his patronage at the same time. The king appointed Jean François de La Roque, lord of Roberval, as commander-in-chief of the expedition, and Cartier was only allowed to accompany him as pilot. Roberval was given unlimited power. When there were no other willing leavers, he was given people from prisons to fill the gaps. As Roberval's preparations progressed slowly, Cartier was ordered to set out ahead. so he was given people from the prisons to fill the gaps. As Roberval's preparations progressed slowly, Cartier was ordered to set out ahead. so he was given people from the prisons to fill the gaps. As Roberval's preparations progressed slowly, Cartier was ordered to set out ahead.
However, even Cartier's trip was delayed by almost a month, the favorable easterly winds had stopped and he had to make his way slowly across the sea. When Roberval was not part of the meeting place agreed on Newfoundland, Cartier continued to sail alone and arrived in Canada at the end of August. At Stadacona, the Indians hurried to meet their countrymen; they were informed that Donnaconna was dead, and that the others had become great lords in France, and married there, for which reason they did not wish to return. The Indians did not express their real thoughts at these news, but were glad at the return of the French, but since then the former confidence had disappeared. Cartier then ascended the Laurentian River until he encountered rapids and became convinced that it was impossible to ascend the Saguenay by water. Winter was in the same place as last time; it seems to have been spent without any sign of a fight with the Indians, but information about the latter stages of the expedition is very scanty. When Roberval was not heard from the following spring either, Cartier left. In Newfoundland he finally met his superior, who insisted on his return, but Cartier, having lost his will and hope, sailed away secretly in the night and returned to St. Malo.
Roberval had delayed and delayed, and during the winter had even practiced piracy; it wasn't until April 1542 that he set off from La Rochelle, with three ships and full colonial equipment. After still staying in Newfoundland, settling disputes between French and Portuguese fishermen, he arrived in Stadacona in July and took over the castle built by Cartier. The winter was spent in great misery, for the people of Roberval were a poor bunch. Roberval hanged some, imprisoned others, whipped others, both men and women, and thus managed to maintain discipline. The Indians also felt sorry for the misery of his people, so that they wept. In addition to all the misery, scurvy began to wreak havoc and fifty died. In the summer of 1543, Roberval with eight boats made an excursion towards the Saguenay, but it does not appear that he even reached it.
Jacques Cartier lived the rest of his life in his hometown of St. Malo, in which old documents often mention him as a baptismal witness, even in one with the words "Captain Jacques Cartier and other good drinkers", in all seriousness. He died in 1557 at the age of sixty-six. Compared to Columbus, Jacques Cartier was inferior both in education and learning, and in intellect: but he was brave, an excellent leader, and a skilful sailor. Although his voyages were not as important as Columbus's, they determined the fate of Canada and its hinterlands for many centuries.
After Cartier, many decades passed before the next great expedition arrived in Canada, or »New France«, which the country had been called; but among trappers and fur traders it began to become better and better known. Gradually, the name of Laurenti river and bay of Laurenti (Sinus St. Laurentii on Whytfliet's map from 1597) became established for the river, although these names do not seem to have been given by the French. In 1588, an heir of Cartier obtained a trade monopoly in New France, but due to opposition from the citizens of St. Malo, this monopoly was revoked. Competing with the French as fur buyers were the French and Spanish Basques, who gained so much popularity among the Indians that it was said that they did not even want to sell to others. In addition, the Basques practiced whaling, which was produced by Laurent in Lahti.
In 1578, King Henry III of France renewed Roberval's viceroy rights, giving them to one of his descendants. This fitted out an expedition, the members of which were largely prisoners, and sailed across the Atlantic. Not knowing where to found his colony, he took his stores and fifty prisoners to Sable Island, off Nova Scotia in the ocean, and set out to find a site for the colony himself. But a fierce storm drove his ship back to France and the prisoners remained on the island. They did not lack food; they had warehouses, cattle brought to the island by the Portuguese and the sea's endless abundance of game. But soon the agreement was broken, and terrible hatred, persecution and murder began on the island, which lasted for five years, until the matter came to the knowledge of the King of France; he immediately sent a ship to rescue the unfortunates. Eleven men dressed in seal skins, with long hair and long beards, were brought before the king, the only ones left alive out of fifty. They had collected some skins, but this property had been robbed from them by the captain; he had to be forced to give back the hides to the wretches through a trial.
This strange island was then joined by another legend, which still entertains today its sea-centered solitude. The fishermen say that there was a monk on the island with the prisoners, who tirelessly, although in vain, tried to persuade them to a better life. When the ship arrived to rescue the survivors, he refused to leave. He was terminally ill, in a few hours his fight would end and the wind would bury him in the ever-flying sand. So they left him. But the legend says that he then recovered and lived for many years, taking care of his little garden, praying and meditating and gathering shells from the sea for food. When the ocean drove shipwrecked sailors to the shore, they received help and comfort from him, and fishermen from the continental shore often visited him. These brought him the articles necessary to celebrate mass, and he gave them advice and consolation. The spirit of the holy monk still today moves in the places of his trials and triumphs. Fishermen sometimes think they see him in good weather walking on the beach or on the highest point of the island, his features reflected against the blue sky. At other times, again, they think they see his figure bright against the black storm-cloud, raising his hands as at the foot of an altar, praying for the salvation of sailors in danger, or giving absolution and blessing, when the tidal wave lifts the ship on its crest to dash it to pieces against the shore. Fishermen sometimes think they see him in good weather walking on the beach or on the highest point of the island, his features reflected against the blue sky. At other times, again, they think they see his figure bright against the black storm-cloud, raising his hands as at the foot of an altar, praying for the salvation of sailors in danger, or giving absolution and blessing, when the tidal wave lifts the ship on its crest to dash it to pieces against the shore. Fishermen sometimes think they see him in good weather walking on the beach or on the highest point of the island, his features reflected against the blue sky. At other times, again, they think they see his figure bright against the black storm-cloud, raising his hands as at the foot of an altar, praying for the salvation of sailors in danger, or giving absolution and blessing, when the tidal wave lifts the ship on its crest to dash it to pieces against the shore.
The fight for the freedom of the seas.
When Queen Elizabeth ascended the throne, there was still no indication that England would become a great power, least of all a colonial power. Spain and Portugal held both the New World and the Indies, their ownership had been confirmed by the Pope with his bull, which was respected by most European countries, even a large part of the Queen's own subjects. The Spanish and Portuguese had proved themselves invincible both on land and at sea. The names of Vasco da Gama, Albuquerque, Columbus, Cortes and Pizarro were known throughout Europe for a reason. All the treasures of the East and the West flooded into Lisbon and Seville. The valor, self-sacrifice, devout Catholicism, and loyalty of both Latin nations to their king assured them of an influence which seemed impossible to break.
England's position was different. For when Queen Mary died there was neither an army nor a navy. The treasury was empty, foreign enemies everywhere. Scotland was still independent and threatened the peace of England. Ireland was indeed defeated, but discontented, France a dangerous enemy. In England itself there was a bitter disunity due to the conflict of faith, the discontent could burst into open flames at any moment if a harsher adversity befell it.
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